DOWNLOAD PDF

Combatting Stigma: Essential Steps in Halting HIV Spread

*Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu1, Getrude Uzoma Obeagu2, Edward Odogbu Odo3, Matthew Chibunna Igwe4, Okechukwu Paul-Chima Ugwu5, Esther U. Alum5,6 and Puche Racheal Okwaja7

1Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kampala International University, Uganda.

2School of Nursing Science, Kampala International University, Uganda.

3School of General Studies (Physical and Health Education Unit) Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria.

4Department of Public Health, Kampala International University, Uganda.

5Department of Publication and Extensions, Kampala International University, Uganda.

6Department of Biochemistry, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

7Department of Public Administration and Development Studies, Kampala International University, Uganda.

*Corresponding author: Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kampala International University, Uganda. emmanuelobeagu@yahoo.com, obeagu.emmanuel@kiu.ac.ug

ORCID:0000-0002-4538-0161

ABSTRACT

Stigma remains a formidable obstacle in the global fight against HIV/AIDS, impeding effective prevention, testing, and treatment initiatives. This review article aims to delve into the pivotal role of combatting stigma as a fundamental strategy in mitigating the spread of HIV. By examining the multifaceted nature of stigma and elucidating essential steps to counteract it, this article underscores the urgency and significance of destigmatization efforts in achieving optimal public health outcomes. The review explores various forms of stigma associated with HIV/AIDS, delineates their impact on prevention and treatment, and proposes critical measures such as education, community engagement, policy interventions, healthcare provider training, and media advocacy. Emphasizing the importance of a comprehensive approach, this review underscores the necessity of collaborative efforts to foster a stigma-free environment, ultimately contributing to the cessation of HIV transmission and improved health outcomes for affected populations.

Keywords: HIV/AIDS, stigma, HIV prevention, Community engagement, Education campaigns, Healthcare provider training, Media advocacy, Peer support, public health interventions

INTRODUCTION

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) remain significant global public health challenges despite decades of concerted efforts to combat the epidemic. While medical advancements have transformed HIV from a once fatal illness to a manageable chronic condition, the persisting stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS continues to thwart comprehensive prevention, testing, and treatment efforts worldwide. Stigma, manifested in various forms, remains a formidable barrier, impeding progress in addressing the HIV/AIDS pandemic [1-10]. This paper aims to elucidate the pivotal role of combatting stigma as a foundational strategy in curbing the spread of HIV. Stigma, often underestimated in its impact, encompasses social, cultural, and structural prejudices directed towards individuals living with or affected by HIV/AIDS. Such discrimination not only affects the psychological well-being of those directly impacted but also poses significant hindrances to accessing crucial healthcare services and perpetuates the transmission of the virus. Understanding the multifaceted nature of stigma is paramount. Enacted stigma, where individuals face overt discrimination due to their HIV status, coexists with perceived stigma, which stems from internalized beliefs and the fear of societal rejection. Additionally, associative stigma, directed towards individuals or groups perceived to be associated with HIV, contributes to social ostracization and further marginalization [11-20]. This paper delves into the pervasive impact of stigma on HIV prevention and treatment outcomes. Stigmatization acts as a deterrent to seeking information, testing, and early diagnosis. Fear of discrimination and isolation often leads to delayed or avoided healthcare-seeking behaviors, resulting in increased transmission rates and undermining efforts to curb the epidemic. Recognizing the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to combat stigma, this article will explore essential steps and interventions necessary to mitigate its adverse effects on HIV/AIDS management. Initiatives encompassing education and awareness campaigns, community engagement and empowerment, policy reforms, healthcare provider training, and media advocacy will be examined in-depth [21-31]. By examining these critical steps, this review endeavors to emphasize the significance of fostering a stigma-free environment conducive to comprehensive HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment strategies. It is imperative to recognize that combatting stigma is not merely an adjunct to HIV/AIDS interventions but a central and indispensable component for halting the transmission of the virus and enhancing the well-being of affected populations.

CONCLUSION

The pervasive impact of stigma on HIV prevention and treatment is profound and multifaceted. Stigma not only impedes prevention efforts by hindering testing and education but also creates significant barriers to accessing care and adhering to treatment regimens. Addressing stigma is critical for creating an environment that fosters open discussions, encourages testing, ensures equitable access to healthcare, and supports individuals living with HIV/AIDS without fear of discrimination. Efforts to combat stigma are integral to achieving successful HIV prevention and treatment outcomes, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies that promote inclusivity, education, and support for affected communities.

REFERENCES

  1. Obeagu EI, Okwuanaso CB, Edoho SH, Obeagu GU. Under-nutrition among HIV-exposed Uninfected Children: A Review of African Perspective. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(3):120-7.
  2. Obeagu EI, Alum EU, Obeagu GU. Factors associated with prevalence of HIV among youths: A review of Africa perspective. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2023;3(1):13-8. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/93.
  3. Obeagu EI. A Review of Challenges and Coping Strategies Faced by HIV/AIDS Discordant Couples. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2023 ;3(1):7-12. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/91.
  4. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. An update on premalignant cervical lesions and cervical cancer screening services among HIV positive women. J Pub Health Nutri. 2023; 6 (2). 2023;141:1-2. links/63e538ed64252375639dd0df/An-update-on-premalignant-cervical-lesions-and-cervical-cancer-screening-services-among-HIV-positive-women.pdf.
  5. Ezeoru VC, Enweani IB, Ochiabuto O, Nwachukwu AC, Ogbonna US, Obeagu EI. Prevalence of Malaria with Anaemia and HIV status in women of reproductive age in Onitsha, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(4):10-9.
  6. Omo-Emmanuel UK, Chinedum OK, Obeagu EI. Evaluation of laboratory logistics management information system in HIV/AIDS comprehensive health facilities in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Med Sci. 2017;3(1): 21-38.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2017.03.01.004
  7. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Musiimenta E, Bot YS, Hassan AO. Factors contributing to low utilization of HIV counseling and testing services. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(2): 1-5.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2023.09.02.001
  8. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. An update on survival of people living with HIV in Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri. 2022; 5 (6). 2022;129. links/645b4bfcf3512f1cc5885784/An-update-on-survival-of-people-living-with-HIV-in-Nigeria.pdf.
  9. Offie DC, Obeagu EI, Akueshi C, Njab JE, Ekanem EE, Dike PN, Oguh DN. Facilitators and barriers to retention in HIV care among HIV infected MSM attending Community Health Center Yaba, Lagos Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(52B):10-9.
  10. Obeagu EI, Ogbonna US, Nwachukwu AC, Ochiabuto O, Enweani IB, Ezeoru VC. Prevalence of Malaria with Anaemia and HIV status in women of reproductive age in Onitsha, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(4):10-9.
  11. Odo M, Ochei KC, Obeagu EI, Barinaadaa A, Eteng UE, Ikpeme M, Bassey JO, Paul AO. TB Infection Control in TB/HIV Settings in Cross River State, Nigeria: Policy Vs Practice. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2020;32(22):101-9.
  12. Obeagu EI, Eze VU, Alaeboh EA, Ochei KC. Determination of haematocrit level and iron profile study among persons living with HIV in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. J BioInnovation. 2016; 5:464-71. links/592bb4990f7e9b9979a975cf/DETERMINATION-OF-HAEMATOCRIT-LEVEL-AND-IRON-PROFILE-STUDY-AMONG-PERSONS-LIVING-WITH-HIV-IN-UMUAHIA-ABIA-STATE-NIGERIA.pdf.
  13. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU. The values of prothrombin time among HIV positive patients in FMC owerri. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2015;4(4):911-6. https://www.academia.edu/download/38320140/Obeagu_Emmanuel_Ifeanyi_and_Obeagu__Getrude_Uzoma2.EMMA1.pdf.
  14. Izuchukwu IF, Ozims SJ, Agu GC, Obeagu EI, Onu I, Amah H, Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Edward A, Arunsi MO. Knowledge of preventive measures and management of HIV/AIDS victims among parents in Umuna Orlu community of Imo state Nigeria. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2016;3(10): 55-65.DOI;22192/ijarbs.2016.03.10.009
  15. Chinedu K, Takim AE, Obeagu EI, Chinazor UD, Eloghosa O, Ojong OE, Odunze U. HIV and TB co-infection among patients who used Directly Observed Treatment Short-course centres in Yenagoa, Nigeria. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2017;12(4):70-5. links/5988ab6d0f7e9b6c8539f73d/HIV-and-TB-co-infection-among-patients-who-used-Directly-Observed-Treatment-Short-course-centres-in-Yenagoa-Nigeria.pdf
  16. Oloro OH, Oke TO, Obeagu EI. Evaluation of Coagulation Profile Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences ISSN: 2814-3035. 2022;2(3):110-9.
  17. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Nkwocha BC, Nwanna CA, Nwanjo HU, Amadike JN, Elendu HN, Ofoedeme CN, Ozims SJ, Nwankpa P. Change in Lipid Peroxidation Marker (MDA) and Non enzymatic Antioxidants (VIT C & E) in HIV Seropositive Children in an Urban Community of Abia State. Nigeria. J. Bio. Innov. 2016;5(1):24-30. links/5ae735e9a6fdcc5b33eb8d6a/CHANGE-IN-LIPID-PEROXIDATION-MARKER-MDAAND-NON-ENZYMATIC-ANTIOXIDANTS-VIT-C-E-IN-HIV-SEROPOSITIVE-CHILDREN-IN-AN-URBAN-COMMUNITY-OF-ABIA-STATE-NIGERIA.pdf.
  18. Igwe CM, Obeagu IE, Ogbuabor OA. Clinical characteristics of people living with HIV/AIDS on ART in 2014 at tertiary health institutions in Enugu, Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri. 2022; 5 (6). 2022;130. links/645a166f5762c95ac3817d32/Clinical-characteristics-of-people-living-with-HIV-AIDS-on-ART-in-2014-at-tertiary-health-institutions-in-Enugu.pdf.
  19. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU, Ijeoma FO, Chioma UI. The values of activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) among HIV positive patients in FMC Owerri. Int J Curr Res Aca Rev. 2015; 3:139-44. https://www.academia.edu/download/38320159/Obeagu_Emmanuel_Ifeanyi3__et_al.IJCRAR.pdf.
  20. Obiomah CF, Obeagu EI, Ochei KC, Swem CA, Amachukwu BO. Hematological indices o HIV seropositive subjects in Nnamdi Azikiwe University teaching hospital (NAUTH), Nnewi. Ann Clin Lab Res. 2018;6(1):1-4. links/5aa2bb17a6fdccd544b7526e/Haematological-Indices-of-HIV-Seropositive-Subjects-at-Nnamdi-Azikiwe.pdf
  21. Omo-Emmanuel UK, Ochei KC, Osuala EO, Obeagu EI, Onwuasoanya UF. Impact of prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV on positivity rate in Kafanchan, Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2017;3(2): 28-34.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2017.03.02.005
  22. Aizaz M, Abbas FA, Abbas A, Tabassum S, Obeagu EI. Alarming rise in HIV cases in Pakistan: Challenges and future recommendations at hand. Health Science Reports. 2023;6(8): e1450.
  23. Obeagu EI, Amekpor F, Scott GY. An update of human immunodeficiency virus infection: Bleeding disorders. J Pub Health Nutri. 2023; 6 (1). 2023;139. links/645b4a6c2edb8e5f094d9bd9/An-update-of-human-immunodeficiency-virus-infection-Bleeding.pdf.
  24. Obeagu EI, Scott GY, Amekpor F, Ofodile AC, Edoho SH, Ahamefula C. Prevention of New Cases of Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Pragmatic Approaches of Saving Life in Developing Countries. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(3):128-34. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/86.
  25. Walter O, Anaebo QB, Obeagu EI, Okoroiwu IL. Evaluation of Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time and Prothrombin Time in HIV and TB Patients in Owerri Metropolis. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2022:29-34.
  26. Odo M, Ochei KC, Obeagu EI, Barinaadaa A, Eteng EU, Ikpeme M, Bassey JO, Paul AO. Cascade variabilities in TB case finding among people living with HIV and the use of IPT: assessment in three levels of care in cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2020;32(24):9-18.
  27. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI. Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus based on demographic and risk factors among pregnant women attending clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri. 2022; 5 (8). 2022;137. links/6317a6b1acd814437f0ad268/Seroprevalence-of-human-immunodeficiency-virus-based-on-demographic-and-risk-factors-among-pregnant-women-attending-clinics-in-Zaria-Metropolis-Nigeria.pdf.
  28. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. A Review of knowledge, attitudes and socio-demographic factors associated with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy among people living with HIV/AIDS. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2023;10(9):135-42.DOI:22192/ijarbs.2023.10.09.015 links/6516faa61e2386049de5e828/A-Review-of-knowledge-attitudes-and-socio-demographic-factors-associated-with-non-adherence-to-antiretroviral-therapy-among-people-living-with-HIV-AIDS.pdf
  29. Obeagu EI, Onuoha EC. Tuberculosis among HIV Patients: A review of Prevalence and Associated Factors. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2023;10(9):128-34.DOI:22192/ijarbs.2023.10.09.014 links/6516f938b0df2f20a2f8b0e0/Tuberculosis-among-HIV-Patients-A-review-of-Prevalence-and-Associated-Factors.pdf.
  30. Obeagu EI, Ibeh NC, Nwobodo HA, Ochei KC, Iwegbulam CP. Haematological indices of malaria patients coinfected with HIV in Umuahia. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2017;3(5):100-4.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2017.03.05.014 https://www.academia.edu/download/54317126/Haematological_indices_of_malaria_patients_coinfected_with_HIV.pdf
  31. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI, Abdullahi IO, Jakheng EW, Chukwueze CM, Eze GC, Essien UC, Madekwe CC, Madekwe CC, Vidya S, Kumar S. Distribution Rate of Chlamydial Infection According to Demographic Factors among Pregnant Women Attending Clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology. 2022;13(2):26-31.
  32. Khan S. Examining HIV/AIDS-related stigma at play: power, structure, and implications for HIV interventions. Health communication. 2020;35(12):1509-19.
  33. Viola N, Kimono E, Nuruh N, Obeagu EI. Factors Hindering Elimination of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV Service Uptake among HIV Positive Women at Comboni Hospital Kyamuhunga Bushenyi District. Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences. 2023;3(2):7-14. http://ajdhs.com/index.php/journal/article/view/39.
  34. Okorie HM, Obeagu Emmanuel I, Okpoli Henry CH, Chukwu Stella N. Comparative study of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (Elisa) and rapid test screening methods on HIV, Hbsag, Hcv and Syphilis among voluntary donors in. Owerri, Nigeria. J Clin Commun Med. 2020;2(3):180-83.DOI: DOI: 32474/JCCM.2020.02.000137 links/5f344530458515b7291bd95f/Comparative-Study-of-Enzyme-Linked-Immunosorbent-Assay-ElISA-and-Rapid-Test-Screening-Methods-on-HIV-HBsAg-HCV-and-Syphilis-among-Voluntary-Donors-in-Owerri-Nigeria.pdf.
  35. Ezugwu UM, Onyenekwe CC, Ukibe NR, Ahaneku JE, Onah CE, Obeagu EI, Emeje PI, Awalu JC, Igbokwe GE. Use of ATP, GTP, ADP and AMP as an Index of Energy Utilization and Storage in HIV Infected Individuals at NAUTH, Nigeria: A Longitudinal, Prospective, Case-Controlled Study. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(47A):78-84.
  36. Emannuel G, Martin O, Peter OS, Obeagu EI, Daniel K. Factors Influencing Early Neonatal Adverse Outcomes among Women with HIV with Post Dated Pregnancies Delivering at Kampala International University Teaching Hospital, Uganda. Asian Journal of Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2023;6(1):203-11. http://research.sdpublishers.net/id/eprint/2819/.
  37. Igwe MC, Obeagu EI, Ogbuabor AO, Eze GC, Ikpenwa JN, Eze-Steven PE. Socio-Demographic Variables of People Living with HIV/AIDS Initiated on ART in 2014 at Tertiary Health Institution in Enugu State. Asian Journal of Research in Infectious Diseases. 2022;10(4):1-7.
  38. O’Connor P, Earnest J. Stigma, discrimination and HIV/AIDS. InVoices of Resilience 2011:33-48. Brill.
  39. Vincent CC, Obeagu EI, Agu IS, Ukeagu NC, Onyekachi-Chigbu AC. Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy among HIV/AIDS in Federal Medical Centre, Owerri. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(57A):360-8.
  40. Igwe MC, Obeagu EI, Ogbuabor AO. ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AND PREDICTORS OF ADHERENCE TO HEALTHCARE OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS IN TERTIARY HEALTH INSTITUTIONS IN ENUGU STATE. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(3):42-57. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/75.
  41. Madekwe CC, Madekwe CC, Obeagu EI. Inequality of monitoring in Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Tuberculosis and Malaria: A Review. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022;2(3):6-15. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/69
  42. Echendu GE, Vincent CC, Ibebuike J, Asodike M, Naze N, Chinedu EP, Ohale B, Obeagu EI. WEIGHTS OF INFANTS BORN TO HIV INFECTED MOTHERS: A PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY IN FEDERAL MEDICAL CENTRE, OWERRI, IMO STATE. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research, 2023; 10(8): 564-568
  43. Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Okolie NJ, Ikeh K, Ajero CM, Dike J, Ojiegbe GC, Oze GO, Obeagu EI, Nnatunanya I, Azuonwu O. BIOCHEMICAL ALTERATIONS IN ADULT HIV PATIENTS ON ANTIRETRQVIRAL THERAPY. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2015; 4(3): 153-160. links/5a4fd0500f7e9bbc10526b38/BIOCHEMICAL-ALTERATIONS-IN-ADULT-HIV-PATIENTS-ON-ANTIRETRQVIRAL-THERAPY.pdf.
  44. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Effect of CD4 Counts on Coagulation Parameters among HIV Positive Patients in Federal Medical Centre, Owerri, Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biosci. Plant Biol. 2015;2(4):45-9.
  45. Obeagu EI, Nwosu DC. Adverse drug reactions in HIV/AIDS patients on highly active antiretro viral therapy: a review of prevalence. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2019;6(12):45-8.DOI:22192/ijcrcps.2019.06.12.004 links/650aba1582f01628f0335795/Adverse-drug-reactions-in-HIV-AIDS-patients-on-highly-active-antiretro-viral-therapy-a-review-of-prevalence.pdf.
  46. Obeagu EI, Scott GY, Amekpor F, Obeagu GU. Implications of CD4/CD8 ratios in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infections. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(2):6-13.DOI:22192/ijcrms.2023.09.02.002 links/645a4a462edb8e5f094ad37c/Implications-of-CD4-CD8-ratios-in-Human-Immunodeficiency-Virus-infections.pdf.
  47. Obeagu EI, Ochei KC, Okeke EI, Anode AC. Assessment of the level of haemoglobin and erythropoietin in persons living with HIV in Umuahia. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2016;2(4):29-33. links/5711c47508aeebe07c02496b/Assessment-of-the-level-of-haemoglobin-and-erythropoietin-in-persons-living-with-HIV-in-Umuahia.pdf.
  48. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU. The Values of CD4 Count, among HIV Positive Patients in FMC Owerri. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 2015;4(4):906-10. https://www.academia.edu/download/38320134/Obeagu_Emmanuel_Ifeanyi_and_Obeagu__Getrude_Uzoma.EMMA2.pdf.
  49. Obeagu EI, Okeke EI, Anonde Andrew C. Evaluation of haemoglobin and iron profile study among persons living with HIV in Umuahia, Abia state, Nigeria. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biol. Med. 2016;1(2):1-5.
  50. Alum EU, Ugwu OP, Obeagu EI, Okon MB. Curtailing HIV/AIDS Spread: Impact of Religious Leaders. Newport International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences (NIJRMS). 2023;3(2):28-31.
  51. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Paul-Chima UO. Stigma Associated With HIV. AIDS: A Review. Newport International Journal of Public Health and Pharmacy (Nijpp). 2023;3(2):64-7.
  52. Alum EU, Obeagu EI, Ugwu OP, Aja PM, Okon MB. HIV Infection and Cardiovascular diseases: The obnoxious Duos. Newport International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences (NIJRMS). 2023;3(2):95-9.
  53. Ibebuike JE, Nwokike GI, Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI. A Retrospective Study on Human Immune Deficiency Virus among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic in Imo State University Teaching Hospital. International Journal of Medical Science and Dental Research, 2018; 1 (2):08-14. https://www.ijmsdr.org/published%20paper/li1i2/A%20Retrospective%20Study%20on%20Human%20Immune%20Deficiency%20Virus%20among%20Pregnant%20Women%20Attending%20Antenatal%20Clinic%20in%20Imo%20State%20University%20Teaching%20Hospital.pdf.
  54. Obeagu EI, Obarezi TN, Omeh YN, Okoro NK, Eze OB. Assessment of some haematological and biochemical parametrs in HIV patients before receiving treatment in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. Res J Pharma Biol Chem Sci. 2014; 5:825-30.
  55. Obeagu EI, Obarezi TN, Ogbuabor BN, Anaebo QB, Eze GC. Pattern of total white blood cell and differential count values in HIV positive patients receiving treatment in Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Life Science, Biotechnology and Pharama Research. 2014; 391:186-9.
  56. Obeagu EI. A Review of Challenges and Coping Strategies Faced by HIV/AIDS Discordant Couples. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences ISSN: 2814-3035. 20231; 3 (1): 7-12.
  57. Oloro OH, Obeagu EI. A Systematic Review on Some Coagulation Profile in HIV Infection. International Journal of Innovative and Applied Research. 2022;10(5):1-1.
  58. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Nkwuocha BC, Nwanna CA, Nwanjo HU, Amadike JN, Ezemma MC, Okpomeshine EA, Ozims SJ, Agu GC. Alterations in superoxide dismutiase, vitamins C and E in HIV infected children in Umuahia, Abia state. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences. 2015;2(11):268-71.
  59. Obeagu EI, Malot S, Obeagu GU, Ugwu OP. HIV resistance in patients with Sickle Cell Anaemia. NEWPORT INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC AND EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES (NIJSES). 2023;3(2):56-9.
  60. Ifeanyi OE, Uzoma OG, Stella EI, Chinedum OK, Abum SC. Vitamin D and insulin resistance in HIV sero positive individuals in Umudike. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2018;4(2):104-8.
  61. Ifeanyi OE, Leticia OI, Nwosu D, Chinedum OK. A Review on blood borne viral infections: universal precautions. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2018;5(6):60-6.
  62. Nwovu AI, Ifeanyi OE, Uzoma OG, Nwebonyi NS. Occurrence of Some Blood Borne Viral Infection and Adherence to Universal Precautions among Laboratory Staff in Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki Ebonyi State. Arch Blood Transfus Disord. 2018;1(2).
  63. Chinedu K, Takim AE, Obeagu EI, Chinazor UD, Eloghosa O, Ojong OE, Odunze U. HIV and TB co-infection among patients who used Directly Observed Treatment Short-course centres in Yenagoa, Nigeria. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2017;12(4):70-5.
  64. Offie DC, Obeagu EI, Akueshi C, Njab JE, Ekanem EE, Dike PN, Oguh DN. Facilitators and barriers to retention in HIV care among HIV infected MSM attending Community Health Center Yaba, Lagos Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International. 2021;33(52B):10-9.
  65. Stangl AL, Earnshaw VA, Logie CH, Van Brakel W, C. Simbayi L, Barré I, Dovidio JF. The Health Stigma and Discrimination Framework: a global, crosscutting framework to inform research, intervention development, and policy on health-related stigmas. BMC medicine. 2019; 17:1-3.
  66. Chambers LA, Rueda S, Baker DN, Wilson MG, Deutsch R, Raeifar E, Rourke SB, Team TS. Stigma, HIV and health: a qualitative synthesis. BMC public health. 2015; 15:1-7.
  67. Van Tam V, Pharris A, Thorson A, Alfven T, Larsson M. “It is not that I forget, it’s just that I don’t want other people to know”: barriers to and strategies for adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV patients in Northern Vietnam. AIDS care. 2011;23(2):139-45.
  68. Zhang C, Li X, Liu Y, Zhou Y, Shen Z, Chen Y. Impacts of HIV stigma on psychosocial well-being and substance use behaviors among people living with HIV/AIDS in China: across the life span. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2018;30(2):108-19.

CITE AS: Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu, Getrude Uzoma Obeagu, Edward Odogbu Odo, Matthew Chibunna Igwe, Okechukwu Paul-Chima Ugwu, Esther U. Alum and Puche Racheal Okwaja (2023). Combatting Stigma: Essential Steps in Halting HIV Spread. IAA Journal of Applied Sciences 11(1):22-29. https://doi.org/10.59298/IAAJAS/2024/3.5.78156

DOWNLOAD PDF